Philosophical Musing

I wanted to publish part of my paper on Michel Foucault's discussion on challenging societal norms and the common discourse. These are some of the ideas from a class that really impressed me and shaped my graduate experience.



For thousands of years man has struggled to define the world and human experiences within it. Greek philosophers were some of the first to theorize about human relationships and attempt to view the world though logical reasoning. In the 16th and 17th century, scientific objective interpretations of the world were emphasized by the Enlightenment thinkers. Objectivism is defined as viewing the world in a fixed way with a universal truth that is waiting to be discovered through empirical means. Postmodern theory was developed as a counter to the modernist objective notions of the Enlightenment. Postmodernists refuted binary categories and objective viewings of truth and knowledge, stressing subjectivity and defining truth by its historical constructs. Popularized by Michel Foucault, postmodern theory provides differing ways to view the world and finding plural forms of truth.

In this paper, I plan to first further define postmodern theory. Secondly, I plan to examine how postmodern feminism that derived from postmodern theory contributes to modern day social work. As social work moves further away from only based in scientific research and practice it is necessary to be creative and recognize our role in removing dominant discourses at work in our society. To be effective in social work today, we must find alternative ways of knowing and learning so that we can stand up to dominant norms and provide new resources that may advance social justice.

Postmodernism theory is becoming well established as an alternative approach to social work applications. Modernists viewed human relationships in a categorical binary or fixed lens. Postmodern theorists argued that this view is limiting and ignoring the complexities of human relationships over time. Postmodernism aims to remove categories and therefore engage in a more comprehensive study of a human being and the diverse self. It seeks to open up possibilities and offer new perspectives on traditionally held beliefs.

Michel Foucault was one of the first established postmodern thinkers of the 20th century. He founded new ways of understanding power through relationships and discovered applications for the social work field. In Reading Foucault for Social Work, Irving argues that Michel Foucault believed that the postmodern lens didn't immediately provide guidance on the conduct of social work but believed that radical questioning and fearless thinking could lead to a deeper understanding of the world (Irving, 1999). Unlike scientific objectivism that in the age of Enlightenment led to viewing the world in a fixed empirical manner, postmodernism thought engages in varying discourses, as Foucault calls them, that attempt to posit uncertainty of what may be considered as absolute truths. By that definition, everything in life is subjective and fluid vs. objective and stationary.

Another major component in defining postmodernism is to understand that history is shaped by context and constructed by language and invented by the participants. Postmodernism theory postulates that there are no known truths and this idea was first introduced by Friedrick Nietzche. Nietzche questioned the modernists of the Enlightenment by stating that all knowledge was created and not permanent. Knowledge can constantly be changing based on the situation and therefore it is important to fully understand a person's condition before making statements that assert your knowledge about a person in a particular environment.

Defining Foucault's notion of power is an integral concept of postmodern thought. Foucault saw power as not located in economic or political structures but rather as being spread out over a whole social system. Power only existed in the form of relationships (Chambon, Epstein, Irving, 1999). Power does not necessitate domination over a particular object but can regulate possibilities for changes in structure. Power also requires resistance in some form, or as Foucault theorized, wherever there is power there will be resistance. Resistance was also thought to have a multitude of forms as it was to be understood that without multiple forms, power and resistance may fall into the binary categories that Foucault attempted to dismantle in society.

My understanding of postmodernism based on the readings is that binary categories lead to understanding the world in a very fixed manner and aim to control a person's way of being. Our view of individuals as argued by postmodernists should emphasize multiplicity and diversity. We should recognize that in order to truly examine someone we must look at the social and cultural constructs that are acting on them. Postmodernist thought gave way to Postmodernist Feminism and allows for approaches to treatment of women to represent their varied interests.

Postmodern feminism evolved as a counter to the essentialist notion that considers gender to be a fixed biological trait. Postmodern feminists argue that gender and sex are not natural but socially constructed. Especially the third wave of feminism sought out to celebrate diversity and recognize that we cannot use one specific term "woman" for all women but need to delegate the term to other forms; middle-class women, African-American women, poor Latina women, etc. Postmodern feminism holds an ideal to remove the binary categories that often oppress women and make direct comparisons to men. It seeks to celebrate the diversity of women yet unite them into a political fight for equality and social justice. As referenced by the lecture on Postmodern Feminism, "women's oppression is produced by patriarchal capitalism" (Nylund, 2010) and within that patriarchy more women are subjected to prostitution, domestic work and marriage/childcare. In order for women to be rid of these categorical roles--opposite of traditional men's roles, the dominant discourse must be challenged.

Discourses, as defined by Foucault, "are structures of knowledge and systematic ways of carving out reality that characterize particular historical moments. The embodied acts of discourse, or discursive practices, provide parameters for what can be known, said, and thought" (Chambon, Epstein, Irving, 1999 p. 272). The common discourse on women in the 19th century is they were not analytical enough to understand politics to be able to make an informed decision to vote. In the middle of the 20th century it was stated that a woman's place was within the home and taking care of the children. The postmodern feminism movement has aimed to change the dominant discourse perpetuated by a patriarchal society so that women can be defined in a multitude of ways that transform the dominant ways of thinking.

Postmodern feminist theory provides a basis to alter the power relationships that are created by the language within the dominant discourse. For example, it may be important to reconstruct the idea that women are dependent either upon welfare services or men. Language can thus be reconstructed to challenge what Foucault called regimes of truth or dominant norms. It has been argued that "language and discourse, as socially constructed, can be politically contested and interrupted in service of emancipatory change". In order to make the changes in the discourse, society must reflectively examine the regimes of truth at work and provide diverse approaches to alter the current models in social work. Postmodernism feminists provide an opportunity for social workers to contribute to social change.....

McClure Meadow

As part of completing my personal life list of hiking objectives and to honor the memory of our daughter Maren Louise Somers, I hiked the entire John Muir Trail in Sept 2010. Nancy hiked the first three days from Yosemite Valley to Tuolumne Meadows with me. We buried some of Maren's ashes at Cloud's Rest near Half Dome in Yosemite NP. Nancy re-supplied me at Red's Meadow and I then continued south where I met my cousins Patrick, Laura, Sheila and their good friend Jeff. We all summited Mt. Whitney at 14,497' on Sept 23, 2010. I spread some of Maren's ashes to the winds from the summit of Mt. Whitney.

It was a challenging and exciting adventure. I met many nice people on the trail and we all had fun. I especially had a great time at Muir Trail Ranch and highly recommend it to any JMT hiker who can get a cabin there - wonderful food, company, and hot tubs....well worth the fees. Thanks to my cousins for bringing me a re-supply in over Kearsarge Pass to help me complete the last portion of the trail. I will likely repeat it again in the future - anyone want to join in a repeat?

Summit Trail to Mt. Whitney